mpg cyl disp hp drat wt qsec vs am gear carb
Mazda RX4 21.0 6 160 110 3.90 2.620 16.46 0 1 4 4
Mazda RX4 Wag 21.0 6 160 110 3.90 2.875 17.02 0 1 4 4
Datsun 710 22.8 4 108 93 3.85 2.320 18.61 1 1 4 1
Hornet 4 Drive 21.4 6 258 110 3.08 3.215 19.44 1 0 3 1
Hornet Sportabout 18.7 8 360 175 3.15 3.440 17.02 0 0 3 2
Valiant 18.1 6 225 105 2.76 3.460 20.22 1 0 3 15 Data transformation
Plotting a graph is easy. You just need to find the right library with the right function. However, it is sometimes not so easy to get your data into the form desired to generate a graph. In this chapter, we will cover some basic techniques in tidying data with ggplot2.
5.1 What is tidy data?
Here’s the definition of Tidy Data given by Hadley Wickham:
A dataset is messy or tidy depending on how rows, columns and tables are matched up with observations, variables and types. In tidy data:
Each variable forms a column.
Each observation forms a row.
Each observational unit forms a value in the table.
See r4ds on tidy data for more info.
What are the advantages of tidy data?
Uniformity : It is easier to learn the tools that work with the data because they have a consistent way of storing data.
Most built-in R functions work with vectors of values. Thus, having variables as columns/vectors allows R’s vectorized nature to shine.
Take a look at the following data and can you tell whether this data is messy or not?
- In this data set,all the variables are parameters of cars. This means that they are not different variables, but are values of a common variable.
To transform the data, we use pivot_longer.
5.2 pivot_longer
mtcars |>
rownames_to_column("carname") |>
pivot_longer(cols = !carname, names_to = "Parameters",values_to = "value") |>
head()# A tibble: 6 × 3
carname Parameters value
<chr> <chr> <dbl>
1 Mazda RX4 mpg 21
2 Mazda RX4 cyl 6
3 Mazda RX4 disp 160
4 Mazda RX4 hp 110
5 Mazda RX4 drat 3.9
6 Mazda RX4 wt 2.62Follow the simple two steps:
Identify the column you want to keep as is. In this case, we want all variables to match car names.
Additionally, notice that in the original data set,
carnameacts as the index of the data set. You would want to convert the index to a column usingrownames_to_column.Create meaningful names for the two new columns. In our case, straightforwardly, column names go into
parametersand corresponding values go intovalue.
5.3 pivot_wider
pivot_wider is just the opposite of pivot_longer. Using pivot_wider, we can transform our tidy data back into the messy form as all distinct values in Parameters will become column names.
pivot_wider is often used in the case such that one observation being recorded over multiple rows. Consider the following example:
# A tibble: 4 × 3
Country Type Number
<chr> <chr> <dbl>
1 USA Case 4
2 USA Death 3
3 Canada Case 2
4 Canada Death 1example |> pivot_wider(names_from = Type, values_from = Number)# A tibble: 2 × 3
Country Case Death
<chr> <dbl> <dbl>
1 USA 4 3
2 Canada 2 1It would make much more sense if Case and Death are separate features.
The main focus of this chapter is pivot_longer and pivot_wider. However, other fundamental functions in dplyr are also very important in manipulating your data set. In the following section, we will give an overview of the basics.
5.4 Basic transformation functions
For the following sections, we will use data set biopsy from MASS for demonstration purpose.
ID V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V9 class
1 1000025 5 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 benign
2 1002945 5 4 4 5 7 10 3 2 1 benign
3 1015425 3 1 1 1 2 2 3 1 1 benign
4 1016277 6 8 8 1 3 4 3 7 1 benign
5 1017023 4 1 1 3 2 1 3 1 1 benign
6 1017122 8 10 10 8 7 10 9 7 1 malignant5.4.1 rename
Upon getting the data, we noticed that the names of the columns are very vague. After reading the documentation, we wanted to change the names of the column so that the viewer gets a sense of the values they’re referring to. We use rename to modify the column names.
biopsy_new <- rename(biopsy,
thickness = V1,cell_size = V2,
cell_shape = V3, marg_adhesion = V4,
epithelial_cell_size = V5, bare_nuclei = V6,
chromatin = V7, norm_nucleoli = V8, mitoses = V9)
head(biopsy_new) ID thickness cell_size cell_shape marg_adhesion epithelial_cell_size
1 1000025 5 1 1 1 2
2 1002945 5 4 4 5 7
3 1015425 3 1 1 1 2
4 1016277 6 8 8 1 3
5 1017023 4 1 1 3 2
6 1017122 8 10 10 8 7
bare_nuclei chromatin norm_nucleoli mitoses class
1 1 3 1 1 benign
2 10 3 2 1 benign
3 2 3 1 1 benign
4 4 3 7 1 benign
5 1 3 1 1 benign
6 10 9 7 1 malignant5.4.2 select
select is column-wise operation. Specifically, only the columns that are specified will be returned.
In the biopsy data, we do not require the variables “chromatin” and “mitoses”. So, let’s drop them using a minus sign:
#selecting all except the columns chromatin and mitoses
biopsy_new <- biopsy_new |> dplyr::select(-chromatin,-mitoses)
head(biopsy_new,5) ID thickness cell_size cell_shape marg_adhesion epithelial_cell_size
1 1000025 5 1 1 1 2
2 1002945 5 4 4 5 7
3 1015425 3 1 1 1 2
4 1016277 6 8 8 1 3
5 1017023 4 1 1 3 2
bare_nuclei norm_nucleoli class
1 1 1 benign
2 10 2 benign
3 2 1 benign
4 4 7 benign
5 1 1 benign5.4.3 mutate
The mutate function computes new variables from the already existing variables and adds them to the dataset. It gives information that the data already contained but was never displayed.
The variable bare_nucleus contains the values from 1.00 to 10.00. If we wish to normalize the variable, we can use the mutate function:
#normalize the bare nuclei values
maximum_bare_nuclei<-max(biopsy_new$bare_nuclei,na.rm=TRUE)
biopsy_new <- biopsy_new |> mutate(bare_nuclei=bare_nuclei/maximum_bare_nuclei)
head(biopsy_new,5) ID thickness cell_size cell_shape marg_adhesion epithelial_cell_size
1 1000025 5 1 1 1 2
2 1002945 5 4 4 5 7
3 1015425 3 1 1 1 2
4 1016277 6 8 8 1 3
5 1017023 4 1 1 3 2
bare_nuclei norm_nucleoli class
1 0.1 1 benign
2 1.0 2 benign
3 0.2 1 benign
4 0.4 7 benign
5 0.1 1 benignIn some situations, your new variable might involve conditions. You can consider using case_when combined with mutate.
5.4.4 filter
filter is a row-wise operation. It returns a modified copy that contains only certain rows. This function filters rows based on conditions supplied in its argument. The filter function takes the data frame as the first argument. The next argument contains one or more logical tests. The rows/observations that pass these logical tests are returned in the result of the filter function.
For our example, say we only want the data of those tumor cells that have clump thickness greater than 6.
biopsy_new <- biopsy_new |> filter(thickness>5.5)
head(biopsy_new,5) ID thickness cell_size cell_shape marg_adhesion epithelial_cell_size
1 1016277 6 8 8 1 3
2 1017122 8 10 10 8 7
3 1044572 8 7 5 10 7
4 1047630 7 4 6 4 6
5 1050670 10 7 7 6 4
bare_nuclei norm_nucleoli class
1 0.4 7 benign
2 1.0 7 malignant
3 0.9 5 malignant
4 0.1 3 malignant
5 1.0 1 malignantIf you want to filter using multiple conditions, use logical operators: &(And), |(Or).
5.4.5 arrange
Arrange reorders the rows of the data based on their contents in the ascending order by default.
Say in our example, the doctors would want to view the data in the order of the cell size of the tumor.
#arrange in the order of V2:cell size
head(arrange(biopsy_new,cell_size)) ID thickness cell_size cell_shape marg_adhesion epithelial_cell_size
1 1050718 6 1 1 1 2
2 1204898 6 1 1 1 2
3 1223967 6 1 3 1 2
4 543558 6 1 3 1 4
5 63375 9 1 2 6 4
6 752904 10 1 1 1 2
bare_nuclei norm_nucleoli class
1 0.1 1 benign
2 0.1 1 benign
3 0.1 1 benign
4 0.5 10 malignant
5 1.0 7 malignant
6 1.0 4 malignantIn case you want your data in descending order, wrap your variable with desc().
5.4.6 group_by and summarize
The summarize function uses the data to create a new data frame with the summary statistics such as minimum, maximum, average, and so on. These statistical functions must be aggregate functions which take a vector of values as input and output a single value.
The group_by function groups the data by the values of the variables. This, along with summarize, makes observations about groups of rows of the dataset.
The doctors would want to see the maximum cell size and the thickness for each of the classes: benign and malignant. This can be done by grouping the data by class and finding the maximum of the required variables:
biopsy_grouped <- group_by(biopsy_new,class)
summarize(biopsy_grouped, max(thickness), mean(cell_size), var(norm_nucleoli))# A tibble: 2 × 4
class `max(thickness)` `mean(cell_size)` `var(norm_nucleoli)`
<fct> <int> <dbl> <dbl>
1 benign 8 2.67 5.93
2 malignant 10 6.73 11.3 5.4.7 slice_max (slice_min)
The slice_max function helps you to find the top n values of a specific column. Suppose we now want to see the top five biopsies with the biggest thickness. Notice in this case, since we have more than five rows with thickness 10, all of them are selected (for neatness, we only show first several rows).
biopsy_new |>
slice_max(order_by = thickness,n=5) |>
head() ID thickness cell_size cell_shape marg_adhesion epithelial_cell_size
1 1050670 10 7 7 6 4
2 1054593 10 5 5 3 6
3 1072179 10 7 7 3 8
4 1080185 10 10 10 8 6
5 1099510 10 4 3 1 3
6 1103608 10 10 10 4 8
bare_nuclei norm_nucleoli class
1 1.0 1 malignant
2 0.7 10 malignant
3 0.5 4 malignant
4 0.1 9 malignant
5 0.3 5 malignant
6 0.1 10 malignant5.4.8 join
Sometimes you will need to combine two data sets and this is when function join comes into play. There are four types of joins provided by dplyr and take a look at the following example.
# Main dataset
s77 <- data.frame(state.x77) |>
rownames_to_column("state") |>
dplyr::select(-c(Illiteracy))
head(s77) state Population Income Life.Exp Murder HS.Grad Frost Area
1 Alabama 3615 3624 69.05 15.1 41.3 20 50708
2 Alaska 365 6315 69.31 11.3 66.7 152 566432
3 Arizona 2212 4530 70.55 7.8 58.1 15 113417
4 Arkansas 2110 3378 70.66 10.1 39.9 65 51945
5 California 21198 5114 71.71 10.3 62.6 20 156361
6 Colorado 2541 4884 72.06 6.8 63.9 166 103766# https://www.cookpolitical.com/2020-national-popular-vote-tracker
partyinfo <- read_csv("https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/e/2PACX-1vS3Z8Rq9xqOLISwoKdK0n6CFLBuPSCoXbbLeY8vhi-rzFS3ZFNEtR0BCdEbHcS-2Tlh5aPcnZbwBLao/pub?output=csv")
partyinfo <- partyinfo |>
dplyr::select(state, called)
head(left_join(s77, partyinfo)) state Population Income Life.Exp Murder HS.Grad Frost Area called
1 Alabama 3615 3624 69.05 15.1 41.3 20 50708 R
2 Alaska 365 6315 69.31 11.3 66.7 152 566432 R
3 Arizona 2212 4530 70.55 7.8 58.1 15 113417 D
4 Arkansas 2110 3378 70.66 10.1 39.9 65 51945 R
5 California 21198 5114 71.71 10.3 62.6 20 156361 D
6 Colorado 2541 4884 72.06 6.8 63.9 166 103766 Ds77 contains statistics of 50 states in the US and partyinfo holds information whether a state is democratic or republican. The two data sets are joined on common feature state. If you want to join on features with different names, specify using the argument by. For detailed explanations of differnet types of joins, refer to the documentation.
5.4.9 Cases to tables
When you want to perform a Chi-squared test or create a paired mosaic plot, your data has to follow a table format. For example, the following table is in the correct format. The columns are anxiety statues and rows are class years.
moderate normal severe
1 11 34 2
2 22 69 4
3 8 41 5
4 15 37 5The following example demonstrates how you can convert cases to tables. Notice the starting data has a count for each of the categorical combinations.
# watch out: summarise
rebates <- read_csv("https://data.ny.gov/resource/thd2-fu8y.csv")
rebate_counts <- rebates |> group_by(make, ev_type) |>
summarize(Freq = n())
head(rebate_counts)# A tibble: 6 × 3
# Groups: make [4]
make ev_type Freq
<chr> <chr> <int>
1 Audi BEV 6
2 Audi PHEV 1
3 BMW BEV 1
4 BMW PHEV 7
5 Cadillac BEV 1
6 Chevrolet BEV 72By using xtabs, we are able to transform our data into a table ready for Chi-squared test or paired mosaic plot.
head(xtabs(Freq ~ ., data = rebate_counts)) ev_type
make BEV PHEV
Audi 6 1
BMW 1 7
Cadillac 1 0
Chevrolet 72 33
Chrysler 0 11
Ford 1 28